Punctuation isn’t complicated once you know what you’re looking at. I see many writers making errors when punctuating appositives. This may be a new term for many folks, so we’ll take a look at what I mean by “appositive,” and then we’ll figure out how to punctuate them correctly.

WHAT’S AN APPOSITIVE?

An appositive is a word or phrase that:

1. renames something you have written and
2. can serve the same grammatical function as the word or phrase it renames.

If the word or phrase passes these two tests, it is an appositive.

FIRST EXAMPLE OF AN APPOSITIVE

Here’s a sentence with an appositive. Let’s take a look at the phrase “a harsh and stubborn woman.” Is this an appositive?

The committee chairwoman, a harsh and stubborn woman, scorned the director’s request.

First test: In this sample, the phrase “a harsh and stubborn woman” renames “The committee chairwoman.” It means the same thing. This satisfies the first test.

Second test: “The committee chairwoman” is the subject of this sentence. However, if we leave out this subject, then “a harsh and stubborn woman” will serve as the subject (minus the commas around it). In this way, “a harsh and stubborn woman” can serve the same grammatical function as “the committee chairwoman.” This satisfies the second test.

Another way to perform this test is to leave out one phrase and then the other, resulting in two sentences. If they are both grammatically correct, then the phrase passes the second test. Using this example, we have the following two grammatically correct sentences.

The committee chairwoman scorned the director’s request.

A harsh and stubborn woman scorned the director’s request.

Based on these two tests, the phrase “a harsh and stubborn woman” is an appositive. We say that this phrase is in apposition to “the committee chairwoman.”

SECOND EXAMPLE OF AN APPOSITVE

Here is another sentence with an appositive:

My brother, a violin player, is coming home.

The phrase “a violin player” is an appositive. It is in apposition to “My brother,” and it passes the two tests: 1) it renames “my brother;” 2) it can serve the same grammatical function.

THIRD EXAMPLE OF AN APPOSITIVE

Most appositives follow the word or phrase they rename. Here’s a sentence in which the appositive is before the word it renames.

A streak in the sky, the eagle raced overhead.

The appositive is “a streak in the sky.” It renames “eagle” and can serve the same grammatical function. We can write “The eagle raced overhead” or “A streak in the sky raced overhead.”

HOW DO I PUNCTUATE AN APPOSITIVE?

Now, what are the rules for punctuating appositives? How do you punctuate an appositive? Now that we know what appositives are, let’s figure out how to punctuate them. To answer this question, we first have to decide what type of appositive we are using: non-restrictive or restrictive.

Non-restrictive appositives: By non-restrictive, we mean they are simply renaming something. We are only referring to one thing, a category with only one thing in it. When appositives are non-restrictive, they are set off with commas. The examples above are all non-restrictive.

In the first example above, only one woman is the committee chairwoman. We don’t need to restrict the category to indicate which woman because it only has one woman in it; we’re just providing additional information about that woman. As such, the appositive is set off with commas.

Restrictive appositives: By restrictive, we mean that we have used a name for a broad category with many things in it. We want the reader to know which thing we’re writing about, so we need to restrict the broad category to a narrow category that only contains one thing. When appositives are restrictive, they are not set off with commas.

Here is a sentence with a restrictive appositive:

The belief that he was alone led him to depression.

The restrictive appositive is “that he was alone.” This phrase renames “the belief,” and, as a noun phrase, it can also serve as the subject (though this will sound awkward to native English speakers).

Why is this restrictive? The category “belief” has many things in it (i.e., contains many individual beliefs), and we want to indicate the one belief to which we are referring. We are restricting the broad category to a very narrow category, the broad category of beliefs to the narrow category of belief that he was alone. As such, this appositive is not set off with commas.

EXAMPLES FROM ONLINE REFERENCE SITES

Let’s look at two examples of appositives taken from the Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue ( http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/596/1 ).

My brother’s car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy of my friends.

The appositive is “a sporty red convertible with bucket seats.” This is in apposition to “car.” It is renaming “car” inasmuch as it means the same thing. “Car” = “a sporty red convertible with bucket seats” (first test). Also, it can serve the same grammatical function as “car.” In this sentence, “My brother’s car” is the subject. However, if we remove the subject (and fix the punctuation), “A sporty red convertible with bucket seats” becomes the subject (second test).

[This one is non-restrictive. My brother has only one car. As such, the appositive is set off with commas.]

Your friend Bill is in trouble.

“Bill” is in apposition to “friend.” “Bill” is renaming “friend” inasmuch as it means the same thing (first test). “Friend” = “Bill” (first test). Second, the appositive can serve the same grammatical function. The sentence “Your friend is in trouble” has the same grammatical structure as “Bill is in trouble” (second test).

[This one is restrictive, assuming you have more than one friend. We are narrowing the broad category of "friend" to a narrow category called "friends named Bill." As such, the appositive is not set off with commas. The broad category has many things in it, i.e., many friends, so we need to restrict it to point out the one we're writing about.]

The Center for Writing Studies (CWS) at the University of Illinois ( http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/appositives/ ) provides a decent definition: “Appositives are two words or word groups which MEAN THE SAME THING and are placed together. Appositives identify or explain the nouns or pronouns which they modify.” Here is one of their examples:

Our teacher, Professor Lamanna, loves grammar.

The appositive they identify is “Professor Lamanna.” This appositive renames “our teacher” and can serve the same grammatical function if “our teacher” (and the pair of commas) is removed.

WHAT DO I DO?

1. Find your appositives. To determine whether or not a word or words are appositives, look at what they mean and how they are used.
2. Decide whether the appositive is restrictive or non-restrictive.
3. Once you have done these two tasks, use the punctuation rules above to determine whether or not to set them off with commas.

David Bowman is the Owner and Chief Editor of Precise Edit, a comprehensive editing, proofreading, and document analysis service for authors, students, and businesses. Precise Edit also offers a variety of other services, such as translation, transcription, and website development.

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Many people will read what you write. We call these people your audience. When you write, your document or manuscript is the tool you use to communicate with them, so understanding them helps you communicate in an appropriate manner. However, unlike some other forms of communication, you actually have two audiences, which we call “primary” and “secondary” audiences. We’ll look at each in turn.

Your primary audience is the person or group of people who will directly receive, or buy, what you write. For example, if you write a book, your primary audience is the person who buys the book. If you are writing a financial report, the primary audience is the person to whom you deliver the report. If you are writing text for your website, the primary audience is the website visitor you are most trying to attract.

When you write, you are trying to communicate information, ideas, impressions, emotions, etc. Whether you are writing fiction, nonfiction, technical documents, or poetry, you have to determine what to include in your document and how to deliver that information.

Once you have figured out who your primary audience is, think about what that person wants or needs. This is one of the most important issues to consider when you are writing and editing. Think critically about that audience and ask a number of important questions, including

a. Why will this person read my document?
b. What problem will this document solve?
c. What does this person want from my document?
d. When and where will this person read?
e. What knowledge does this person already have about the topic?
f. What will this person do with the information in my document?

Answers to these questions (and others you may think of) will help you make decisions about such issues as topics in general, specific content, length, complexity, format, use of headers and footers, use of headings and lists, and word choice. As you can see, knowledge of your primary audience affects not only what you write about but also how.

These are marketing-type questions that will help guide the development of your product: your document. You may have a specific goal to accomplish with your document. However, only through aligning your document with your readers’ needs will you accomplish that goal.

Now that you have created a profile of your primary audience, let’s consider your secondary audience. Your secondary audience is the person or group of people who receive the document from the primary audience. In many cases, though, the document itself is not transferred to the secondary audience-only the information from or about the document is passed on.

For example, if you write a financial analysis of a new program, your primary audience may be your supervisor or contracting agent. If that person takes specific information from the report and uses it to create his or her own report, or if that person passes on the document to another person, then the document or information moves from the primary to the secondary audience.

For another example, if you write a fiction book, the person who buys the book is the primary audience. However, if that person passes the book on to another person, if the original buyer talks about the book to someone else, or if the book is read with a child or another person, then the child or other person is the secondary audience.

Why is this important? Nearly every document or manuscript will have a secondary audience. The needs of that person may be different than the needs of the primary audience. Create a profile of this person, as well, using the same questions listed above. To ensure the effectiveness of your writing (or the widest distribution of the content), identify the secondary audience and consider that person’s needs.

You will want to address both the primary and secondary audiences’ needs. Once you have done so, you will have the information necessary as a writer to create the document or manuscript that others will accept, understand, and appreciate. And this means you will be able to accomplish your goals.

(The content of this article was adapted from 100 Days to Better Writing: A Daily Handbook for Improving Your Writing.)


David Bowman is the Owner and Chief Editor of Precise Edit, a comprehensive editing, proofreading, and document analysis service for authors, students, and businesses. Precise Edit also offers a variety of other services, such as translation, transcription, and website development.

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Given the state of today’s economy, many people are looking for work. Other than the regular crowd of job-seekers, the recent graduates, the job-changers, and the youth seeking jobs while they go to school, the job market is being flooded with people who have been laid off.

Companies with positions to fill have many applicants from which to choose. What this means is that your cover letter and resume are very important.

Your cover letter, in particular, is often your first interview with a company, the first chance for a hiring agent to get to know you. A good resume cover letter can help you make a good impression and get an interview. A weak cover letter might cause your resume to be placed in the reject pile.

Many of our clients have asked, “What do I put in my cover letter?” And nearly all of our clients have needed assistance with organizing the content of their letters. Below, we will address both of these issues. If you come seeking our help with your resume and cover letter, great. However, the brief guide below should get you started on writing a successful cover letter.


Cover Letter Content and Organization

Paragraph One: Introduce yourself and state your intentions. This 1 to 2-sentence paragraph tells the reviewer who you are and why you are submitting your cover letter and resume. For companies with multiple job openings, this paragraph also tells the reviewer which pile to put your resume in. Your name is at the bottom of the letter in the signature line, so you don’t need to repeat it here. Instead, describe the type of person you are.

Example: As an experienced sales and marketing professional, I am interested in the position of regional sales manager with the XYZ Company.

Paragraph Two: Summarize your qualifications for the position. Focus on your abilities, not your specific skills. (Abilities are personal characteristics; skills are specific behaviors you can perform. You can learn skills, if needed, but abilities tell what kind of person you are.) The description of your abilities lets the reviewer know if you will be able to learn the skills and how you will perform in a professional environment. However, be careful of using “buzz words” without illustration. You can briefly address your professional history in this paragraph as a way to illustrate your abilities. 3 to 4 sentences should be sufficient.

Example: I am a creative, yet focused, professional with strong managerial skills. My knowledge of system integration, coupled with my leadership abilities, has enabled me to identify and enact efficiencies in even the most complicated organizational environments. For example, in my most recent position, I created new quality control processes and instructed inter-departmental teams on their use. Although I am a “company man,” I am also an individual thinker, seeking new opportunities for the company to reach target markets and surpass financial goals.

Paragraph Three: In this paragraph, you answer this question: “Why are you applying for this position?” In answering this question, you address two issues. First, describe how this position fits your abilities and interests. In a sense, you are saying that this position is appropriate for who you are now. Second, describe how this position will help you advance your career goals. This tells the reviewer that you have a strong interest in the position and will do what you can to succeed and grow. Again, 3 to 4 sentences will be enough.

Example: The leadership and marketing perspective required for a regional sales manager align with my abilities and experiences. I am enthusiastic about expanding my broad knowledge of the market and diverse populations, two aspects of this position I find particularly exciting. Furthermore, this position will assist me to advance into progressively higher responsibilities, and it will provide the satisfaction I earn by succeeding in new and challenging responsibilities.

Paragraph Four: The final paragraph is short, 1 – 2 sentences only. In this paragraph, you bring your resume cover letter to a close by thanking the reviewer and by calling for action. You say “thank you” because that is polite and professional. (After all, the person has read this far and deserves your gratitude.) The action step is essential. Here you answer the question “What’s next?” Will you call the person? Do you want the person to contact you? Do you want to set up an interview? State the action as the final sentence.

Example: Thank you for your consideration. I look forward to meeting with you to discuss how I can support the mission of the XYZ Company.


Other Considerations for Your Resume Cover Letter

Delivery: Paper, e-mail, or fax. Call the personnel agent (or other contact) to ask how to send the resume and cover letter. Although e-mail is very popular, don’t assume-ask. Fax is not recommended unless specifically requested. You cannot control the quality at the other end. Also, if the company wants a paper copy, send it by mail. If you are sending your cover letter by e-mail, send it as an attachment as a PDF file.

Fonts: Times New Roman or other serif font. This looks professional, and it is easier to read than a non-serif font, such as Arial.

Letterhead: Yes. Use a letterhead if you have one. However, don’t use one that is overly stylistic, i.e., too cute.

Layout and format: Use a standard business letter format, complete with date and recipient’s address. Remember to use a colon, not a comma, after the recipient’s name in the greeting. Use 1-inch margins for the letter content.

Recipient: The phrase “To Whom It May Concern” is not appropriate. Send it to a person by name or by position. For example, send it to “Dear Thomas Hardy” or send it to “Dear Sales Division Director.” Using the name is preferred, but the second option is acceptable if you cannot find the person’s name after a serious attempt.

Paper: (This only applies if you send the cover letter and resume by mail.) Use the same type paper for the cover letter and the resume. Choose professional, strong, slightly-off white paper. The paper should be easy to read, so avoid paper with background graphics, watermarks, or obvious design elements. The content, not the paper, will promote your qualifications.

Length: Neither longer nor shorter are preferred. The appropriateness of the content is more important than the length of the letter. With that said, though, 1/2 to 3/4 page should be enough, even if you use a letterhead. If you go over 3/4 page, see what you can cut or condense. Concise writing is persuasive, vigorous writing.

Writing Mechanics: Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and word usage should be perfect. Reviewers will respond positively to well-written content, consciously or unconsciously. On the other hand, errors in writing mechanics create an immediate poor impression of your professionalism.

Assistance: Get it if you need it. Some job seekers need someone to write the letter for them. Others need editing for clarity, organization, and persuasiveness. And some simply need help proofreading to ensure perfect use of mechanics.


Two Last Comments

The advice above is based on our work with successful job-seekers. Many cover letter formats are available, and many people and organizations offer recommendations, so don’t take this advice as the final, definitive word on the subject. This format has worked for our clients. Find what works best for you.

Finally, if you are currently looking for a job, or if you foresee the need in the near future, I wish you well. This is a tough time, but jobs are available. Don’t get discouraged. You can do it. We can help.


David Bowman is the owner and chief editor of Precise Edit, a comprehensive editorial service provider for authors, businesses, and students. Precise Edit also offers a variety of other services, such as translation, transcription, and website development.

Did you enjoy this?  Don’t miss out! There’s plenty more valuable information right here at The Cuckleburr Times from David.

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I recently responded to the following question: “I am trying to improve the exposition/argument I am writing in English. What can I write instead of ‘in my opinion…’?”

As an editor, I like writing that gets to the point, communicates confidently, and provides new information. Phrases such as “in my opinion,” “I think that,” and “I believe” create three problems for writers.

1. They delay the writer’s message.
2. They demonstrate insecurity.
3. They tell the reader what he already knows.

Let’s look at why this is, using the sample sentence, “In my opinion, flowers are better than elephants.”

1. Delayed message
The statement the writer wants to make is “flowers are better than elephants.” If that’s the statement, then the writer simply needs to make it and not waste the reader’s time with “in my opinion.” Phrases such as “in my opinion” will always delay the writer from the point he or she wants to make. My advice: Get to the point. Make the statement.

2. Insecurity
Writers use these types of phrases so that they don’t have to make clear, definitive, confident answers. When you express something as only an opinion or personal belief, you can’t be blamed later if you are wrong. After all, the statement was only an opinion, not fact. The reader will be right to wonder if the information is only opinion, in which case it can be ignored, or if it is fact. Strong, confident writing expresses information as the truth. Confident writing is more direct and more persuasive.

3. Unnecessary information
Who is writing the words? The writer is. Unless the writer is quoting or citing the ideas from someone else, whose ideas are they? The writer’s. What this means is that the statement is the writers idea, opinion, belief, and thoughts. The reader will understand this. As such, the writer doesn’t need to tell the reader that the ideas are his own.

Formal vs. informal writing
In personal writing, such as letters, diaries, journals, and private memos, the writer can write whatever he wants, however he wants. In formal writing, though, the standards are much higher. Formal writing includes academic papers, business reports, letters to colleagues or stakeholders, and journal articles.

Standards are higher for two main reasons. First, the need to communicate accurately is higher. Ideas are stated more directly and clearly. Second, the writer needs to create an image, or demonstrate a level of credibility. When a writer creates a good image, the reader will be confident that the information is accurate and that the person writing is credible. By maintaining high standards, the writer builds trust in the reader.

Answer to the question
So this brings us back to the original question: “What can I write instead of ‘in my opinion’?” Based on the issues discussed above, the answer is “Nothing.” In my response to the person asking the question, I encouraged him to remove that phrase, or any similar phrase, and get to the point. “Don’t replace it with something else,” I advised. “Replace it with nothing.”

Using our example
Instead of writing, “In my opinion, flowers are better than elephants,” the writer should concisely, directly, and confidently state, “Flowers are better than elephants.”


David Bowman is the owner and chief editor of Precise Edit, a comprehensive editorial service provider for authors, businesses, and students. Precise Edit also offers a variety of other services, such as translation, transcription, and website development.

Did you enjoy this?  Don’t miss out! There’s plenty more at The Cuckleburr Times from David.

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My two favorite words are still “axiom” and “myriad.” Say them with me “ax – ee – umm” . . . “mere – ee – aad.” Good three-syllable words. Strong words. Words like “Dracula” and “Frankenstein.” Pretty words.

But this article isn’t about my favorite words. It’s about the word I have recently decided to hate.

Last week I was flying back from a week of grant writing assistance in Alaska. About 10 hours into my travels, I heard the young lady in the plane seat behind me say the following sentence. Read it aloud and try to guess which word is my least favorite: “Like I was like what’s wrong with like that and he was like I like guess it’s like ok.”

If you guessed the word “ok,” you’re wrong. My new least favorite word is “like.” And she used it six times in the same sentence. Ack!

Actually, “like” is a great word when used correctly-and sparingly. The word “like” establishes a comparison to help the reader or listener understand some topic or concept. To communicate a new idea or some characteristic, we compare the thing to something familiar.

For example: Puppies are like five-year-old children on permanent sugar highs. Just to be clear, puppies are not really five year old children. They are like (i.e., similar to, resembling) five-year-old children. This is a simile. However, it is this distinction that makes the overuse of this word such a problem. If I say, “I’m like ok,” for example, then I am NOT ok. I’m only similar to “ok.”

Sentences such as “I was like, what are you doing?” simply don’t make sense. This sentence is using “like” to create a simile, but what is being compared? Do I resemble “what are you doing?” No. When I heard that sentence I was like a dog choking on a bone.

As I mentioned earlier, using “like” to create similes is fine when infrequent. This is not an issue with the word “like” but with similes in general. When you are communicating a complex or foreign idea, they can be useful. When you are using them for no other reason than to create an artistic effect, they are unnecessary.

The overuse of similes is a sure sign of an amateur writer. A writer who uses too many similes is like a child drawing with only one color of crayon. Clever at first, but quickly becoming dull. An experienced, professional writer rarely needs them because he or she will have the ability to describe things as they are. Additionally, because direct similes using “like” are so obvious to the reader, and often sound forced when frequent, good writers will rely on implied similes.

For example, the sentence, “Our chief of staff, a wolf in disguise, fired the unsuspecting clerk” compares the chief of staff to a wolf, perhaps a wolf in lamb’s wool. This is not a metaphor because it implies that the chief of staff is similar to a lion in disguise. For another example of an implied simile, the phrase “late night yawns of death” compares the process of dying in old age to the process of falling asleep. According to this implied simile, they are similar. And the writer didn’t need to use “like” even once. Yeah!

Do I catch myself using “like” like the girl on the plane? Yes, sometimes. This abuse is so prevalent in society that it begins to sound normal, and it sometimes slithers into my speech (another implied simile). You won’t find it in my formal writing or, I hope, my formal speech. Because, like, that would be like so wrong.


David Bowman is the owner and chief editor of Precise Edit, a comprehensive editorial service provider for authors, businesses, and students. Precise Edit also offers a variety of other services, such as translation, transcription, and website development.

Did you enjoy this?  Don’t miss out! There’s plenty more at The Cuckleburr Times from David.

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At times, writing articles may turn into a difficult task. It doesn’t have to be, however. One of the main complaints heard of is when a writer experiences what is commonly called writer’s block.

This happens when an author, for whatever reason, can’t effectively put their thoughts down in print. Whether writing a novel or doing some article marketing, writer’s block stops the writer dead in the water.

If you find yourself afflicted by this, it may become very frustrating, very fast. There are some things you may do to overcome this obstacle before it becomes incapacitating.

Here are a few tips to get you back in the saddle again:

* Many writers find it helpful to change their surroundings. Even the smallest change may affect large results in freeing the creative juices again.

Take your laptop on a short, local trip. It’s not the distance that matters as much as the change in atmosphere.

It may be all is needed is to try a different location right inside your home. Maybe you need to be out of the office for a bit; even if that means just walking from end of the house to the other. That may be all it takes to change your whole outlook on things and put you in a new frame of mind.

* Another trick of the trade to get out of the writer’s rut, is to change your topic to something new. I’m not talking about picking another topic within a niche. Go outside the box and challenge yourself by learning about something new and writing about that.

How many times have you been to the gym or other sporting event and warmed up or stretched before the game? Think of this writing practice as a “stretching exercise” for the creative mind.

The very worst thing that could happen is you are still blocked. You will, however, have invested your time in learning something new all the same. That knowledge may be useful down the road in ways you can’t yet see.

* Focus on a different target audience. Stop thinking about customers and website visitors. Write to a family member or close friend. Tell them about your topic; much the same way you would in a verbal conversation.

Don’t allow yourself to write to strangers. Write to someone you know and to whom you can relate.

* Don’t try to edit while you write or you will never be done. When you write, write and when you edit, edit. Avoid anything that disrupts the flow once you have it started.

As aggravating as writer’s block seems at the time, it is usually not terminal and will pass in time. The worst thing you can do is beat yourself up about it. It only exacerbates the problem and it’s worse than ever.

Maybe the best thing to work through writer’s block is to walk off from it totally for a while. Read a book or go to a movie or take a long walk.

Unless you are working for a professional writing service under deadline, who cares if your write today or tomorrow? And if you are a professional writer, no worries. There seems to be something magical and powerful in an editor’s boot when properly applied to the posterior.

If you write for enjoyment, only write when you enjoy it. If you must write for your business, practice makes perfect (or at least passable). You will either improve over time or find a good professional writing
service to outsource your work. Either way, the job gets done and that’s all that really matters anyway.

Mike Lawson is a freelance writer, entrepreneur and internet marketing professional. Learn more about effectively marketing your business here at Bluegrass Solutions and  Bluegrass Merchants.

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